Building empathy

One of the things I discuss with my trainee teachers is the importance of promoting empathy rather than sympathy when including a child with a disAbility. An issue that brings about the most debate in this context is, when a student with a disAbility first joins our class, whether we should talk to the class about that child's disability.

What children want

Chadsey and Gun (2005) interviewed a group of middle school children, asking them to explain the things that help them develop friendships with their peers who have a disability. Here are some of the key things they said:

1. Segregation is unfair
2. Teachers should come into classes to give us more information about students with disabilities
3. Don’t let students make fun of students with disabilities
4. Create programs where both students with and without disabilities can hang out with each other
5. Use volunteer peer partners (eg in buddy systems)
6. Group students with disabilities into our social networks
7. Have students with disabilities tell us about their disabilities
8. Clubs or after school activities should include kids with disabilities and should be of interest to everyone
9. Let students with disabilities take the same bus as us

Empathy

"the power of understanding and imaginatively entering into another
person's feelings" (Collins Concise Dictionary)

Understanding and relating to each other's experiences is an important part of developing relationships and respect. However, the way we help our students understand others' experiences will influence how they perceive that person.

Sympathy

synonyms: compassion, pity

A relationship built on pity or compassion is an "unbalanced" relationship, a relationship where there is not an equal balance of power or status.

For example, I want to share with you the story of a little girl with Down Syndrome - lets call her Sally. Before Sally came into the class the teacher talked about Sally's difficulties. She suggested that Sally would need help doing certain things.

The intention of the teacher was great - to promote understanding and a smooth transition. And when Sally came into class, it seemed like this is what had happened. However, on closer inspection the children were treating Sally differently. They were using baby-language to her, they were shepherding her around the school without really listening to her, they were mothering and smothering her.

What is the alternative?

Avoid talking about the child when they are not in the room. To those who ask, "Why?", think about how you might act if you have just had a "lesson" on fellow student and then the student walks into the room. First, you probably have developed an expectation of how that person will look and act based on your understanding of the teacher's words. Secondly, you will probably turn and stare - not being intentionally rude, but because you want to "see for yourself" this new person. For a child who needs a sense of belonging, to "blend" with the crowd, this can be very distressing. Even if the reactions are positive or compassionate, the child is starting off being seen as different.

If you want to share, share together. Rather than talking about one child, get everyone to talk about themselves. This way you are building a sense of similarities, and fellow-feeling, rather than setting one child up to be separate. Using "ice-breaker" or "get-to-know-you" activities at the beginning of the year (or any time during the year if there are indications that students may be at risk of bullying/being bullied) can be really effective.

Here are some ideas:

• Sit/stand in a circle. Have a bean bag/ball to be passed around. Have a theme eg. I am good at... but am not so good at .... The person who is holding the ball/bean bag has to complete the sentence, then call someone's name and pass the ball/bean bag on to them.
• Paint and/or collage a self-portrait using words, pictures, phrases, little biographical stories, photos and so on.
• Have each child write and share their "bio" - a short story about themselves.

This means that when you are sharing you are focusing less on the label, more on the person. You are also conveying a sense of similarity and belonging to all children, not focusing on what is making one child different to everyone else. Everyone is different - that is the value of diversity.

Talk about diversity, difference and individuality. Click here for a good article by the Children's Hospital.org on how to talk to children about recognising and valuing diversity. We have become very good at incorporating books that reflect diverse cultures, non-traditional gender roles and different families into early childhood, primary and secondary education. We should be increasing the range of books we use that portray people with disabilities. We should be incorporating units of work on disAbilities into our curriculum - from looking at sporting heroes, to musicians, to works of fiction aimed at promoting understanding about Aspergers, Autism, Down Syndrome, ADHD, Hearing impairments and so on. Empathy exercises can also be used - eg. we don't have to wait until we have a child with a vision impairment in our classroom before we get children to experience what it might be like by getting them to complete an obstacle course fully or partially blind-folded.

Decide what peers may need to know, and address the issue. Some children with disAbilities will be overwhelmed by emotions at times to the point that they may have a melt-down. We need to ensure that we have processes in place to ensure the safety of the child and their peers. If you are including a child who is at risk of having a melt-down in the classroom, you don't have to talk about the child, but you should talk about the behaviour. Have a discussion that is focused on helping children relate to the experience and problem-solving. For example, address:

• How would you feel if.... (lead children to talk about what makes them frustrated, angry, scared)
• What would you do if you couldn't say what you feel?
• What should we do if... (lead children to design a set of steps to follow if they are afraid someone is going to hurt themselves or others)

You could use a similar process if you need to build awareness of health issues such as epilepsy.

Let the child and parent control the information sharing process, or use rules. In some cases it will be important for the child to share specific things about themselves. For example, a classroom including a child with low vision will need to keep things in the same place and keep the floor clear of obstacles. In this case, you could have rules to this effect in your classroom. You could talk to the child prior to designing the rules to see if they want to share a little of why they need these measures in place. Some children may not want to share information with their whole class, but may want to have the opportunity to share it with a smaller supportive group of peers. For young children, it is the family (parents/caregivers) who should decide what, when and how information about the child is shared.

Be prepared. Especially with younger children, and if a child has a disability that makes them visibly different, you might get questions such as "What's wrong with Johnny?" Brushing off these questions, or treating them as inappropriate behaviour, can make children feel like there is something "bad", "wrong" or "secret" about the child with a disability. Instead, we should answer them as openly and honestly as possible. Teachers should discuss possible answers with the family and/or child before these questions come up. Families have often had much practice in answering these questions.

In the case of the question, "What's wrong with Johnny?" you might say, "There is nothing wrong with Johnny. It is just that his legs don't work the same way as yours so he has to use crutches to help him walk."

The aim should be:

Helping children relate to each others' experiences. We all have things in common, but we are also all unique.

Reference:

Chadsey, J., Gun Han, K. (2005). Friendship-Facilitation Strategies: What Do Students In Middle School Tell Us? Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(2), p52.

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How to have a peaceful Christmas... a last post for the year

On this day of only 5 sleeps to Christmas it is time to write my last post for the year. I thought I would make it a short and sweet list of things to do that may help you have a more peaceful Christmas if you are including a child who has special needs. Many of these were suggested to me by parents of children with conditions such as Autism.

Hints for having a peaceful, inclusive Christmas

• An orientation:
  

If the child is visiting your place for the first time, it is important to give them a slow and explicit tour of the building. Pictures on closed doors indicating what the rooms are and whether they can be used can help with boundary issues.

• A guest list:
  

To help children know who to expect at the gathering, you may send a guest list to parents before the day. You may even help the parent develop a photo guest list. Looking at this every day in the week before Christmas can help children be more comfortable when meeting people they may have not seen for a while.

• A Routine or schedule:
  

To help children deal with the anxiety of the day, having a picture or written schedule of events might be helpful. Again, if the child becomes familiar with this before the day it could be even more effective. Here is a sample social story and some ideas from other parents.

• A way of communicating:
  

Communication is such an important part of any social gathering. Not being able to communicate can produce difficult behaviour due to frustration or distress. Make sure you understand how the child communicates, and have some special tools available to help with communication. Here is a great example. It comes from this site, where you can find other free samples.

• A plan for anxious moments:
  

Because of the noise and busy-ness of the day, it is likely that a child with sensory sensitivities, social or behaviour difficulties may need a quiet space to calm down. Have a room set up with toys that help calm the child - they may bring a favourite sensory toy or object from home.

Tell the parent and the child, and anyone else who you think may need to know, where the room is and when it can be used. Make it clear that the space is out of bounds to anyone except those who need time out. Oh, and think of time out as a restorative process not a punishment. You could use these symbols to help the child know when it may be time to re-join the activities.

• Patience:

But, overall, your most valuable tool for creating peace at Christmas is patience. Children with special needs may struggle with many things on Christmas day. They may have melt-downs... or times when they become very upset and it is hard to calm them down. They may struggle with things like waiting, taking turns and may seem impolite at times. They may even hit or push their peers or adults at times because they are finding it hard to control their impulses or communicate what they need.

Understand that these are things that they may take longer to learn than their peers. See this behaviour as an opportunity for patience and learning. If you take the perspective that every behaviour has a reason behind it, then your response will be measured and supportive. It will focus on helping to stop the behaviour rather than punishing or criticising it.

Have a wonderful, peaceful Christmas... and a Happy New Year! I will return to blogging sometime in the middle of January. But for now, it is time for a rest.

:)

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Discussing the transition to school process with an Early Intervention Teacher

Recently I talked to Darren from the Firstchance Early Childhood Intervention Program: Transition To School group, a group which supports families of children going to school the following year. Here is our discussion.

Q: What do you do to help children and families prepare for school?

- Advise families of the schooling options.
- Support families with the application, transition and orientation process for their preferred school.
- Provide the school / DET with applicable reports for each child.
- Support families and school with support funding applications.
- Support families with exploring options for post-early intervention support through government and community based programs.
- Support children with developing skills they will most likely need for comfortable inclusion in a new educational setting - special emphasis is given to social skills, postural and fine motor skills, communication skills, emotional resilience, independence / self control and self help skills.


Q: What have you found to be the things parents find most difficult in the transition to school process?

- Confidence that their child will be ready for a new environment.
- Concern that they are moving from a closely supported environment to one they perceive to be less individually supportive.
- Concern that their child will not receive the individual support required to meet their specific learning needs.


Q: What things would you say children struggle with the most in the transition to school?

- Moving to an environment with more structure- such as rules and following other people’s agenda!
- Being part of a physically and socially larger environment.
- Having to be more independent.
- Longer hours and more days!


Q: What could a parent do at home to get their child ready for school?

- Speak positively about school.
- Provide opportunities for children to be independent in their decision making and problem solving - especially from a social perspective.
- Practise lots of sitting at a table, drawing, cutting with scissors, etc.
- Visit the school or drive past it, take photos and make a 'social story' as a book or Powerpoint presentation, practise getting dressed in their uniform (including shoes!).


Q: What would be a typical process you go through with a child/family in the transition to school?

- Co-ordinate and in-service information evening for families - attended by representatives from schools and the DET.
- Send all relevant reports and support application requests to DET.
- Meet with school staff to discuss child’s areas of need, support options, and facilitate discussion around parents’ questions or concerns.
- Provide support as needed by attending school orientations, making pictorial social stories


Q: What advice would you give parents as they think about the transition
process?

- Get in early to explore your school options. Visit schools so you can get a feel for the environment. Talk to other parents who have children going to the school. Talk to parents in your child's preschool group - you all share the same concerns!
- Be prepared that it will take time to hear confirmation of your child's placement in a support class / special school.
- You know your child better than anyone; because of this, you make things happen. That is why things WILL work out. Be confident!

...

For more information about the Firstchance Early Intervention Service visit http://www.newcastle.edu.au/centre/sed/firstchance/ecip/index.html

If you want to find out about early intervention in your area, you can visit http://www.ecia.org.au/index.htm - there are "chapters" for each state who will be able to give you more information.



.

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Games and fun stuff to promote communication

Children get sick of being asked to talk or “perform” and may refuse, especially if your request for language seems purposeless to them. Games are a fun way for children to learn without even knowing they are learning. Newton (2004) discusses some key things to think about when deciding on what games to play. I discuss some of these below. But the key thing to remember is that, while learning to label things is important:
“Action words are more important than nouns or names because they are far more useful. Names can only be used for labelling.” p113

Sounds or words?

Words will be meaningless sounds to our children if we don’t help them understand those sounds. Some fun ways to help children recognise the meaning include:

* Sorting games – to help children recognise colours and understand descriptive words such as big and small, wet and dry, play sorting games. This could be a simple as getting them to find all the blue pegs while you are hanging the clothes on the line. Or sorting counters during Maths activities at school.

* Nonsense words – one of the things I use to prompt reluctant talkers to get involved is use nonsense or incorrect words to label or describe things that you are pretty sure the child is able to identify. For example, when reading a book identifying a dog as an elephant. Or if the child is requesting something, make wildly incorrect, humorous guesses until they correct you. And, from my experience, it usually brings laughter as well as the desired communication.

Which comes first? The request or the manners?

Newton (2004) suggests that it is much more important that your child learn to request something (eg. drink, biscuit) than learning “please” and “thank you”. However, once they have mastered the requesting, then you might want to teach these words. Some fun ways to expand on your child’s ability to request items:

* Hide and seek using an object – This will give you an opportunity to model and prompt requests.

* Sharing toys – play games where you limit the number of toys available so that you and your child, or the child and other children, have to request items and take turns. Or put toys just out of reach so that your child needs to ask for them.

Dramatic play, puppets and soft toys

Acting out every day activities in dramatic play can really help expand children’s language. Puppets, dolls and soft toys can also be a front behind which a child can “hide” if they are reluctant talkers. A child who will not talk with others may sit for hours “chatting” to or through their dolls, puppets and soft toys.

* Shopping – just like with many of us adults, shopping can be a favourite with children. Set up a sales counter, use picnic sets, toys, empty cartons and play money and you will have many opportunities for speech. In this game children will need to request things. You can also help them with counting and other phrases that might be used in real life shopping experiences. Also, take every opportunity to describe what you, other children or the child is doing.


* The sandpit – playing in a sandpit will also product a lot of opportunities for communication. Building roads, castles, villages, cakes…. So many different opportunities for requesting and describing activities will be made.

* Cubby houses – cubby houses also seem to be one of those things that hold their appeal across the ages. And some of the most exciting, communication producing cubbies are the ones built out of mum’s bedspread, pillows, chairs, the dining table etc. Again, requesting, describing and using useful “real life” language in a pretend setting can help increase children’s communication abilities.

Cooking together

There are some household or life activities that lend themselves to helping children communicate. Cooking is one of these. It provides you with opportunities to describe what you are doing, talk about the ingredients, request items and so on.

Drawing and craft

Drawing, painting and craft projects are also productive of similar opportunities as described for the cooking activities. Here are some tips:

* Rather than guess what your child has drawn, try saying “Tell me about your picture.” Write down what the child says, either on the back or on the picture itself, so you can read it together and talk about it again another time.

* As you do these activities, talk about what you are doing. Eg, “Snip, snip! We are cutting in a straight line!”

Giving instructions

Play games where children provide instructions verbally. For example, Simon says (replacing “Simon” with the child’s name), treasure hunts, obstacle courses. But make sure you have pictures and gestures lined up for the child to use as well as language if they are struggling with their words.


… But most of all, have fun LoL

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Violence in the Media and aggression…

Over many years, there has been a debate raging around this issue. I don’t want to enter into that debate here, but I do want to talk about the things we need to consider when we are making decisions about what our children watch or what video games they play.

How might aggressive behaviour develop?

There are a number of theories about the development and occurrence of aggression across different stages of child and youth development. Kirsch (2006) provides a good overview if you want to read more. However, here I just want to quickly summarise these.

Some children may be more wired towards aggression
This has to do with personality characteristics and the outcomes of disorders such as Autism, Attention Deficit Disorders and Developmental Delays. These children aren’t necessarily going to act aggressively, but due to impulsivity, difficulties with problem-solving or other aspects of cognition they are at higher risk of developing aggressive behaviour depending on what they see, hear and experience.

We learn many social skills by observing
What we see and hear has a great influence on how we behave. It influences our sense of what is “normal” and acceptable. So if we are constantly seeing others act aggressively, whether in real life or in the media, we are more likely to accept this behaviour as “normal”. We may even start behaving more aggressively. This has been described as de-sensitisation.

The other effect is that we can develop a different definition of what constitutes aggression or unacceptable behaviour. This may lead to us not responding in the same way to aggressive behaviour in others. So if I am exposed to swearing and the yelling of derogatory comments regularly, I am less likely to feel that I am being treated unfairly or being bullied when someone yells and swears at me. And while it does not necessarily follow that this behaviour does not affect me emotionally, it can mean I don’t defend myself or communicate to the other person that this behaviour is unacceptable.

Our experiences reinforce what we see
What we experience in our lives, and what those who we trust and love do around us, can influence whether we take on what we see. For example, Kirsh discusses research that suggests that the effects of what children see in the media can be increased or decreased through discussions with teachers and parents. For example, what children learn from educational shows or documentaries is increased if teachers or parents explicitly discuss the content of the shows with them. On the flip side, the effects of a scary movie can be reduced by the presence of an adult if that adult makes the child feel safe. And violence in the movie can be put into perspective through discussion of social values and/or the difference between real life and what they have seen.

Aggression may not be evident immediately
In some cases, the influence of violent media can be evident immediately. For example, when I was working in a child care centre there was definitely an increase in children playfully or intentionally hurting each other with “karate” moves during the “Ninja Turtle” craze. For the most part this behaviour could be shaped and changed through discussions and behaviour modification techniques, but for some children it became a significant bar to their relationships with their peers.

However, it is the more long term effects that we can’t predict and are less likely to be able to manage. For example, the American Psychological Association (2003) reports on a 15 year study of 329 people which showed that children who watch a lot of violent media early in life are at greater risk of becoming physical in domestic arguments, or having been convicted of crimes.

There is also the concern that children who have a tendency towards aggression may enjoy watching it, which in turn could lead to a warped view of what is acceptable and what is not.

Triggers for aggression
So if a child comes to think of aggression as being part of life and an acceptable way of dealing with problems, they are more likely to have a physical response to social problems such as arguments, debates, insults, frustration and anger. It is the latter emotions that bring about aggressive behaviour.

What we need to consider for children of differing abilities

Taking things literally
We need to be especially thoughtful about what our children watch if they tend to take things literally. For example, children with intellectual disabilities may find it very difficult to understand that there can be a dual set of values – one for “real” relationships, and one for the shows they watch. They may take statements or modelled behaviour in the media literally. So watching on thing, then hearing another from their parents or teachers, can be a very confusing experience.

Children who have Autism and Aspergers may also struggle with this as they also tend to have a very literal, black and white view on the world.

Difficulties with self-management
Children who have difficulty thinking about consequences or the effects of their actions on themselves or their peers before they act can also be at greater risk of being influenced by repeated exposure to aggression in the media. For example, children with ADHD often act impulsively in response to their feelings due to the difficulty with executive function (see previous post). So they need extra support to get into the habit of controlling their behaviour. Repeated viewing of uncontrolled or inappropriate behaviour could mean that this behaviour becomes habitually seen as acceptable.

Ongoing frustrations and feelings of failure
Children with a wide range of difficulties, including physical and sensory disabilities such as cerebral palsy and vision or hearing impairments, experience many frustrations and challenges throughout the day. They may find themselves tired or unable to effectively communicate what they know, want or need to others. The way they respond to these feelings is not only shaped by their natural, impulsive response. It is shaped by what methods they have learnt to deal with this situation. So, again, if they are seeing inappropriate models in the media, it may influence their behaviour.


Conclusion

So while the media can’t necessarily be blamed for aggressive behaviour, it can be a contributing factor. And for children with differing abilities, we need to make sure that all our hard work teaching positive social skills isn’t being weakened by repeated exposure to media that communicates contradictory values and inappropriate approaches to problem-solving.

So when you are deciding on media use in your family or classroom, consider the content in the context of the values and skills you want your children to learn. Also consider how much/how often they view movies, videos, TV shows and play computer games. And, finally, consider whether they do it unsupervised and how much you talk to them about the content they have seen. Because, in the end, the values and social skills you model and communicate to your child will be a significant factor in helping them process the information in a balanced way.


References:
Kirsh, S.J. (2006). Children, Adolescents, and Media Violence: A Critical Look at the Research. London: Sage Publications.

American Psychological Association. (2003). Childhood Exposure to Media Violence Predicts Young Adult Aggressive Behaviour, According to a New 15-Year Study: Children Who Identify with Aggressive TV Characters and Perceive the Violence to be Realistic are Most at Risk for Later Aggression. Retrieved 16h August from: http://www.apa.org/releases/media_violence.html

American Psychological Association. (2004). Psychologists Help Protect Children from Harmful Effects: Decades of psychological research confirms that media violence can increase aggression. Retrieved 16h August from: http://www.psychologymatters.org/mediaviolence.html

Want to read more:
http://spil.medieraadet.dk/upload/04a_melb.pdf This is the best article. I recommend reading this.
http://ultimateparenting.com/pdf/violence_in_the_media.pdf
http://www.commonsensemedia.org/impact-media-violence-tips
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/effects_media_violence.cfm
http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/index.htm
http://www.psychologymatters.org/videogames.html
http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2005-2009/07BA.pdf

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Avoiding a culture of bullying

Image from "Dave is Brave" www.learn2bebuddies.com.au Copyright Amanda Gray 2009

There are a number of things that we can do to prevent bullying. But in order to do this we need to understand what puts children at risk of bullying.

Difference or vulnerability can often increase the chance of a child being bullied. Whether they have a disability or not, a child who looks different, or doesn’t conform with the expectations or values of influential peers, or whose interests differ from those peers, is at risk of being bullied.

Carter and Spencer (2006) looked specifically at research about what increases the risk of a child with a disability being bullied. One study highlighted some key factors. It found that children with physical disabilities were more at risk of being bullied if:
- they received extra help at school
- they were alone on the playground
- they had less than two good friends

What does that tell us about preventing bullying?

One of the things it tells us is that it all begins with our attitudes. As adults – parents and teachers – we need to think about how we react to people who are somehow different. Do we respond fearfully? Do we exclude or avoid adults or children in the community whose appearance or behaviour is different to what we expect? Do we exclude people from our schools, classrooms, activities or homes based on difference? Or do we try to understand them and work with their strengths?

Because ultimately our attitudes will build the culture of our homes, schools and classrooms. If we respect and value the contributions of all people, if we look for their strengths and build relationships with them, it will flow into the culture that is created in our homes, communities and schools.

Influenctial rules to create a respectful home, school or community culture

There are many ways of influencing the culture of our homes and schools, but in this post I want to talk about rules. Rules or a code of conduct are required in schools (as mentioned in the first post this month). But there are certain things we need to do to make rules work.

Rules that work

If you say, “Don’t say nasty things!” you may yourself entabled in an argument about what is nasty. An argument that may end with the statement that "you can't tell me what to do!!!".

But let’s say you sat down with your children or students and discussed the issue. For example, you notice that there is a bit of teasing going on. Ask them if they have ever been teased, how that made them feel. Then get them to come up with some rules, or a set of rights and responsibilities. This will give them a sense of ownership of the rules, and will deflate their arguments against the rule because they came up with the rule themselves.

But avoid “Don’t” rules. As soon as a child (or an adult, for that matter) hears the word don’t, there is a great temptation to “do”.

For children who struggle with understanding abstract ideas, empathy, or have language or concentration difficulties, it is also important that your rules clarify exactly what is expected of them.
So instead of a rule that says, “Don’t be nasty” you could end up with rules such as:
- “Say kind things”
- “Treat others like you would want to be treated”

If you show children respect, they are more likely to respect others.

You should also remember that more rules you have, the less likely you will enforce them all. Keeping to a maximum of 5 rules is usually the best approach. Because rules are only useful if you consistently reinforce them. For example, you can remind children of the rule when they are breaking it to help them get back on track. Or you could praise those who are following the rule by saying something like, "That was a kind thing to say! Thank you!".

When you first introduce the rule, you should also have a system of rewards or consequences. The children should come up with these as well - though be careful because children can be harsh when coming up with consequences.

Make sure the consequences fit the action. For example, time out is not going to be an appropriate consequence for teasing or bullying on its own. Instead, the consequence should include apology and reparation of the relationship with the child who was bullied.

Do not tolerate bullying, but you should also make sure that the consequence deals with the underlying reasons behind the behaviour.

I might leave it there (it is getting late)…. Next time I will talk a bit more about how we can protect our children and students from bullying by expanding on the idea of a circle of care.

Reference

Carter, B.B, Spencer, V.G. (2006). The Fear Factor: Bullying and Students with Disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 21(1), p11-24.

For more information about designing rules that work and a culture of respect, you might want to visit: http://www.afcec.org/tipsforteachers/tips_index.html

http://www.bullyingnoway.com.au/ideasbox/we-say/we-say-01.shtml

http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/resources_and_downloads/mindmatters/mindmatters_resource_kit_landing.html

Parenting

http://www.theparentszone.com/parenting/how-to-set-the-rules-of-parenting-discipline-to-make-your-child-respect-and-follow-them/

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Laws about bullying

“Bullies and bullying should never be treated lightly.”
Dr Kevin Leman in his book Have a New Kid by Friday.

The Disability Standards for Education 2005: What it says about bullying.

In Australia, the inclusion of children with disabilities in educational institutions is shaped by the Disability Standards for Education, 2005 . Part 8 of these Standards deals specifically with the issue of bullying. So I thought I would start this month by explaining the key points from those Standards.

For readers who come from countries other than Australia, the key elements of the Disability Standards should be reflected in legislation in your country. In a later post I will explore the UN rights of the Child and would love to hear from anyone who has some information about relevant laws in their own country.

What is harassment or bullying? (picture copyright Amanda Gray, taken from "Dave is Brave" www.learn2bebuddies.com.au)
The Disability Standards define harrassment/bullying as any action that may “humiliate, offend, intimidate or distress the person” (p22). It clearly states that any act that comes under this category that is aimed at students with disabilities or any associate (eg parent, friend, teacher) of that student is unlawful under the Disability Discrimmination Act 1992.

It also more specifically states that no one should be bullied or harassed due their need for supports or adjustments such as teachers' aides, technology, guide dogs and so on.

While I am just focusing on the Disability Discrimmination Act and Disability Standards, there are laws that address this issue for all community members, not just students with disabilities. They all have the following elements.

What is required of an education provider?
First, let’s just clarify that an education provider is any educational institution, authority or anyone who is developing curricula. So, for example, in NSW that includes the NSW Board of Studies, the Department of Education and your child’s school.

And education provider needs to have in place three things:
1. Processes to prevent bullying or harassment
2. Mechanisms for reporting any occurrences of harassment or bullying.
3. Mechanisms to respond to harassment of bullying.

Prevention
The Standards make it clear that part of the process of preventing harassment is to have a code of conduct. This means that there should be rules that help set a positive, supportive, respectful culture in the school.

Every school should have a discipline policy or anti-bullying policy that includes a set of rules or expectations. These expectations should be about promoting respect. These policies should also be frequently discussed and freely available to everyone in the school community, including parents.

There are many other ways of preventing bullying, but I will discuss these in future posts.

Reporting
The Standards require that a school have a system for ensuring that students can report if they have been bullied or harassed. This process should again be clearly stated in the anti-bullying or discipline policy. And, again, this should be available to all students, staff and parents.

Students and staff should be reminded regularly of how they can report bullying.

Students can be afraid of reporting a bullying event if they feel like they are at risk of further bullying due to being seen as a “tattler”. It is important that the school design processes that a confidential and protect the “reporter” of a bullying event. I will discuss this more in a future post.

Responding
The Disability Standards state that any response to bullying should be “fair, transparent and accountable.”

This means firstly that the school needs to understand what caused the bullying in the first place. Misunderstanding? Self-esteem issues on the part of the bully? Prejudice or stereotyping? Lack of empathy? There are many more reasons why one person bullies another.

This does not mean that the bully should not experience consequences. However, it does mean that the only way to really stop the bullying is to address the underlying reason for the bullying and respond to the needs of all parties in the event.

Zero tolerance to bullying is essential. But that does not mean that we ignore the needs of the bully. This will benefit neither the bully nor the child being bullied. But I will talk about that in another post this month.

Being transparent about your response to bullying is about making clear what the consequences for bullying will be in the school or Departmental policy. So the anti-bullying policy should say “If you bully someone, then …”

Being accountable is about recording the bullying event and the steps taken to respond to it. For example, the school principal, parent and/or school counsellor should keep records about what has happened.

If you want to know more….
If you want to know more about the Disability Standards, you can download them here. You could also look at the documents that help explain the Disability Standards (though they are a bit heavy).

If you want to know more about the NSW Department of Education’s approach to bullying in schools, visit Bullying! No Way!

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Ask Amanda

It is time to Ask Amanda... what do you want to know about his month's topic or any topic related to special education or inclusion?

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Dear Teacher

A letter from a parent of a child with ADD, placed here with permission ....

Sometimes it is great to hear from parents so we as teachers can keep things in perspective. Thank you, parent, for sharing.

Dear Teacher,

By now you have had the chance to observe and interact with my son. You might find him to be goofy, high-strung, impulsive, reactive, or just plan irritating. But, no matter what your thoughts are about my beautiful boy, please remember what you have been hired to do. I put my child in your hands to guide him, teach him, inspire him, and help him grow. You cannot do this if you don't have an understanding of how he is made. On the days you feel like you can't take another minute of him, reach out to him. When he's interrupted you over and over again, be gentle. When he can't stay in his seat another moment, send him on an errand. When he's not really getting social cues from his peers and struggling relating to them, talk to all the children without singling him out. When he can't seem to focus, touch his shoulder gently without saying a word. When he says he hates school, don't take it personally, he just hates feeling so frustrated by the world around him that he can't turn off.

And lastly, please remember that this child is the apple of someone's eye. They bring us so much joy, even with the difficulties they have to endure every single day. You could be the one teacher that could change my child’s life forever, or you could be the one that could tear down his self-esteem for years. Watch your words. Our children never forget a negative comment. Remember why you want to teach, and realize you will see more and more children like mine. They want to do good. They want to succeed. They want to please everyone. You could be that one who could make a difference forever by reaching out to my child. I truly believe that the success you find in him will carry you on for many years.

Sincerely...an ADD parent.

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Doing what you are told

One day, in a state of complete exhaustion, I got up to complete my final routine before crawling into bed. In my head I planned to do as follows:
Put cheese in fridge
Put rice crackers in cupboard
Clean teeth
Crawl into bed

As I discovered when I next was looking for my favourite snack, what I actually did was:
Put cheese and rice crackers in fridge
Clean teeth
Crawl into bed

This is an example of cognitive planning going wrong… and an illustration of how executive function can be affected by fatigue. Children whose executive functioning has been affected by factors such as fatigue, anxiety, ADHD or other factors/disorders may find it hard to carry out a sequence of steps even if they do remember the main points of what they have been told.

Doing what you are told

To follow instructions we need to be able to identify the important items, plan and organise the information so we can follow-through with the instructions. Then, finally, we need to be able to concentrate and monitor our actions (ie. I should have realised that the rice crackers really didn’t belong in the fridge). All this is managed by something we call executive functioning (Hagemann, Hay and Levy, 2002).

Executive Function (Hagemann, Hay and Levy, 2002):

Executive function is part of the working memory system. It is a cognitive function that helps us helps us decide what to remember, and what to discard. It helps us put the information in the right order. And it helps us stay on track.

So if a teacher says, “Well, kids, now it’s time to pack up. I want you to put your pencils in your pencil-tin, your books in your tote tray and then come and sit on the floor ready to have a story.”

A student whose “executive function” is working well might have a thought process that goes something like this… “pencils away, book in tote, sit on the mat”. They will then do this in the required order, and be sitting quietly at the front of the room ready for the teacher.

A student whose executive functioning is not operating in the same way, you may find they carry their books and pencils with them to the mat, or they get out their tote tray and put it on their desk. Alternately, they could get distracted half way through and need multiple reminders to get back on track because they aren’t monitoring their own behaviour.

For other children it may just be that they take much longer to work through the process, having to work hard at remembering each step.

Executive functioning is identified as one of the key functions that is affected in children with attention deficit disorders like ADD and ADHD. This means that the children often act impulsively, without thinking about the instructions or consequences of their actions. It also contributes to the fact that they prioritise what’s going on outside the window rather than listening to the instructions you are giving (which, of course, links back to the difficulties with paying attention).

So this is just one more thing to consider when we give instructions….

Next time I am going to post a letter from a parent who has a child with ADD. It provides some great insight. If you want to contribute a similar letter, please email it to me at amandag7@optusnet.com.au

I hope this blog is helpful to you. If it is, make sure you vote on the poll on the left. I also look forward to your questions and suggestions for future topics.

If you want to find out more about me and what I am up to, you might want to visit www.learn2bebuddies.com.au


References

Hagemann, E., Hay, D.A., and Levy, F. (2002). Cognitive Aspects and Learning. In S. Sandberg (Ed), Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood, p214-241. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

You might also want to visit:
http://www.ldinfo.com/executive_functioning.htm
http://www.ncld.org/content/view/1200/480
http://www.ldonline.org/article/Executive_Function_Fact_Sheet

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Do you understand what I'm saying?

Image from "Dave is Brave" www.learn2bebuddies.com.au . Copyright Amanda Gray and Daniel East.

Jenny has just arrived home from the gym feeling stiff and sore. Tom has just come inside as the coldness of the evening has made it too uncomfortable to work any longer in his garden.

Jenny rubs her lower back. “Uhhh! I feel old!”

“Brrr. I’m freezing, too! I’m going to have a shower.”

Jenny watches him go with a perplexed look on her face. “What?”
Image from

Interpreting

Even if we hear what a person is saying, and are paying attention, sometimes we don’t correctly interpret what they are saying.

To interpret or work out what a person is saying you have to be able to make sense of the sounds you hear. You need to change the isolated sounds into words, then put those words together based on their sequence and how they are said to get the full meaning of what you have been told (Anderson, 2000).

Minor misunderstandings like that between Jenny and Tom can occur because of trouble hearing. But they also often occur because we all bring our own ideas or context to communication.

Jenny’s context was that she was sore and tired. Tom’s was that he was cold. So he interpreted the word “old” to mean “cold”.


What makes it hard to interpret sounds?

The size of your vocabulary
You need to share the same vocabulary with the person to whom you are talking (Anderson, 2001). Children can have a smaller vocabulary for a wide range of reasons. Children with developmental delays such as that associated with Down Syndrome may take longer to learn words in a way that means they can “retrieve” them easily. This means that they may have a smaller vocabulary (Buckley, 1993; Chapman, 2006).

We pick up most of our vocabulary through experiences with language and conversations (Cross, 2001). Children who have difficulties hearing will have smaller vocabularies due to limitations placed on their language experiences. Children for whom English is their second language will also have a smaller vocabulary.

Some conditions like dyslexia can influence how we process sounds (Stein, 2001). So while children with these conditions may be able to hear the sounds, it might take them longer to work out what these mean. These children may also have a smaller vocabulary, or mix up sounds more often. They may also struggle to hear changes in tone of voice, which will be discussed below.

Children who have Autism Spectrum Disorders may also have a smaller vocabulary. This is mainly due their limitations in social and emotional reciprocity, or empathy (Scott, Clark, Brady, 2000). This means that the motivation for their communication will come from their own interests, not based on an understanding of how communication influences their relationships with others (Autism Association of South Australia, 2009).

For example, a child with Aspergers may have a special interest in Maths and logical problems. This child may then have a big vocabulary relating to this subject. But in the context of other subjects, including language related to everyday tasks and social interactions, their vocabulary might be quite small.

These difficulties can also lead to problems with the other things you need to know in order to correctly interpret what people are saying (discussed below).

Your knowledge of the patterns of language
To understand what people are saying you need to have a good knowledge of how words fit together in a sentence. You also need to know how tone of voice can change what they mean. As discussed in a previous post , this can be difficult if you have trouble paying attention to and interpreting others’ facial expressions and body language.

Your knowledge of the subject being discussed
As mentioned previously, knowing the context of a discussion is important in helping us interpret what is being said (Anderson, 2001). It helps us put the sounds together and chose the right words to fit the context. It also speeds up the process of changing the sounds into meaningful sentences.

So if you have a child who is tired, or bored, or struggling to pay attention they are more likely to misinterpret what you are telling them to do.


The process of interpreting sounds and words relies on our skills in remembering and retrieving information we have learnt (Hick, Botting & Conti-Ramsden, 2005). I will talk more about memory in the next post.


References:

Anderson, C. (2001). Pragmatic Communication Difficulties. In R. MacKay and C. Anderson (Eds), Teaching Children with Pragmatic Difficulties of Communication, p24-38. David Fulton Publishers: Hampshire.

Autism Association of South Australia. (2009). What is Autism? Retrieved 16th May, 2009 from:http://www.autismsa.org.au/html/disorders/autism.html


Buckley SJ. (1993) Language development in children with Down syndrome - Reasons for optimism. Down Syndrome Research and Practice,1(1), p3-9. Retrieved from http://www.down-syndrome.org/reviews/5/

Chapman RS. (2006). Language learning in Down syndrome: The speech and language profile compared to adolescents with cognitive impairment of unknown origin. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 10(2), p61-66. Retrieved from http://www.down-syndrome.org/reports/306/

Cross, L. (2001). Early Communication Development. In M.S. Lue (Ed.) A Survey of Communication Disorders for the Classroom Teacher, p35-54. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.

Hick, R.F, Botting, N., and Conti-Ramsden, G. (2005) Short-term memory and vocabulary development in children with Down syndrome and children with specific language impairment. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 47, p532–538. Retrieved http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FDMC%2FDMC47_08%2FS0012162205001040a.pdf&code=7abb5653813d8fc667d2aaa56a4c8e16

Scott, J., Clark, C., and Brady, M. (2000). Students with Autism: Characteristics and Instruction Programming. Singular Publishing Group: San Diego.




Stein, J. (2001). The Neurobiology of Reading Difficulties. In M. Wolf (Ed) Dyslexia, Fluency and the Brain, p 3-22. York Press: USA.

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Why aren’t you listening? Disobedient or Distracted?

Picture copyright Daniel East - from "Dave is Brave" www.learn2bebuddies.com.au

“I’ve told him what to do a dozen times, but it goes in one ear and out the other!”

Have you ever heard that said? Well, it might be very near the truth.

But, despite what you might feel, a “good kick up the backside” is not the solution. We need to understand why our words have not stuck with the child.

What is involved in doing what you are told?

When you are told to do something you have to be able to hear, listen, interpret, remember and act on the instructions. If you have difficulties doing any one of these things you can seem “disobedient”.

In this post I want to talk about hearing.

Hearing

I won’t give you a biology lesson on hearing here. You might want to visit the Mayo Clinic if you are interested in how the ear works. For now, I just want to point out some reasons why a child might not be able to hear you.

Conductive hearing loss (ASHA, 2009; Australian Hearing, 2009; Moore, 1997)

Children who have recurring ear infections such as Otitis media, or even a build up of wax in the ear will find it hard to hear clearly. For others the bone and cartilage structure may interfere with the movement of sound through the ear to the nervous system that processes the sounds.

Children with Down Syndrome are shown to be at increased risk of ear infections and conductive hearing loss because of their susceptibility to infections and the smaller ear canal (Moss, nd).

Indigenous Australians have also been shown to be at increased risk of conductive hearing loss (Coates et al).

For some children, the treatment might be through antibiotics or grommets (MyDr, 2008). For others, hearing aids may be used.

Sensorineural hearing loss (ASHA, 2009; Australian Hearing, 2009; Moore, 1997):

This is when the cochlea or the nerves that carry sound to the brain might be affected. The levels of hearing loss may differ, but generally sensorineural loss cannot be fully addressed even if the child is using hearing aids. For children whose cochlea is damaged, cochlea implants can be used. For others, communication will be through the use of sign language.


The levels of hearing loss are described as mild, moderate, severe and profound. If you want to know what a child might hear depending on the level of hearing loss they have been diagnosed with, visit ASHA and the Medical College of Wisconsin (they have a great picture that is easy to understand). The Warren Centre also has a good diagram of what sounds equate to different decibel levels (as seen in the ASHA description).

Disobedience or Distraction?

If a child has an ear infection such as Otitis Media they will struggle to hear you call their name in a noisy room or if their back is turned to you. So if they don’t respond, it is that they haven’t been able to pick out your voice from all the other noises going on around them.

If a child has a hearing aid or a cochlea implant, it doesn’t mean that they have perfect hearing. They will struggle to hear you in noisy rooms, or if there is something or someone making a noise closer to them than you.

You also need to remember that children with hearing impairments may have smaller vocabularies and may struggle with understanding how sentences are put together. This is because their learning of language is interrupted by what they can and can’t hear. This may mean they find it hard to pick out the important bits in your instruction.

For example, if you say "Julie, can you put your book away in your book tray, please?" the child
may know you have mentioned a book and a tray, but not make the connection between the two. So the child may be confused about what exactly you want them to do with the two objects.

Next Time

In the next post I will talk about the difference between listening and hearing. Later I will also talk about some strategies and things to think about when giving instructions to a child who has a hearing impairment.

References
Australian Hearing (2008) Types of Hearing Loss. Retrieved 10th May, 2009 from: http://www.hearing.com.au/types-of-hearing-loss

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2009). Type, Degree and Configuration of Hearing Loss. Retrieved 10th May, 2009 from: http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/types.htm

Coates, H.L., Morris, P.S., Leach. A.J., and Couzos, S. (2002). Otitis media in Aboriginal children: tackling a major health problem. Medical Journal of Australia 177 (4): 177-178 Retrieved from: http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/177_04_190802/coa10271_fm.html

Mayo Clinic (2009). How do we Hear? Retrieved 10th May, 2009 from: http://www.mayoclinic.org/hearing-disorders/how.html

Moore, B.C.J. (1997). An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. SanDiego: Academic Press.

Moss, K. (nd). Hearing and Vision Loss Associated with Down Syndrome. Retrieved 10th May, 2009 from: http://www.deafblind.com/downmoss.html

My Dr (2008). Otitis Media in Children. Retrieved 10th May, 2009 from: http://www.mydr.com.au/kids-teens-health/otitis-media-in-children

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Ask Amanda - About Tourette syndrome awareness

What might a strategy be in order to educate a class where there is present a boy with Tourette syndrome? Ho might we address this situation with respect to the students as well as the class? The boy has blinking as well as some verbal ticks wich at times can be distracting to his learning ability as well as the rest of the class. ... Facebook Friend

When helping build awareness about a child's disability the most important rules to adhere to are:

1. Make sure the process is controlled by the parent and/or the child.
2. Promote empathy rather than sympathy

Make sure the process is controlled by the parent/child

Talk to the parent and the child. Get their ideas. What do they want to share?

If they do not want to talk about the child's disability specifically, then you need to address the issue in general terms. I will talk more about this below. This is often the most effective approach as it decreases the chances of the child being stereotyped by their "label" or disability.

Secondly, if the child does want to talk about their disability, it should be done in the context of all students talking about themselves. This sets up an environment of respect and empathy, rather than pity and isolating the student as "different" or with nothing in common with their peers.

For example, use "get-to-know-you" games. These could include sitting in a circle and throwing a ball. The person who catches a ball has to say something about themselves. It is best to have some guidelines about what they share, and also have some rules about responding respectfully. To find out more about rules go here.

And that brings me to another point - before you do anything, you need to set up a culture of respect by establishing these class rules. You also need to model the attitudes you want, such as including the child and praising the child, relating to them in the same way you would with any other student in your classroom.

Promote empathy rather than sympathy

If you want to discuss the issue with the class, make sure you do it in a way that helps them relate to the child rather than feel sorry for or fear them.

For example, don't talk about Tourettes syndrome. Talk about the things that the children see and hear (the blinking and verbal tics). But do this indirectly. An example of how you might do this is below. You will need to adapt this according to the age of the children and so on.

The way we act and what we say is effected by a lot of different things. But one of the most important things that effects how our body moves and what we say is the messages our brain sends to our body.

It is like each person is run by electricity and the brain is the power station. The "wires" that carry the electricity to "run" our body and our speech can be effected by different things. Tiredness, being sick and sometimes just the way our bodies are made. These things may mean it is hard to turn the power on or off. It may mean that one part of our body gets too much power, while another part doesn't get enough.

If we can't turn the power off when we want to we might call out when we don't mean to, or our body might move even when we don't want it to move.

Whether you personalise it or not will depend on whether the child/parent wants this. But just remember - if your students ask you "Is that what is wrong with ...", don't avoid the issue like it is taboo or a bad thing. Just calmly and briefly answer the question (or give the child with tourettes syndrome the opportunity to respond) without making a big deal of it.

This approach will help the children understand and relate to the child, rather than trying to teach them about a "label" or a syndrome - to which they won't be able to relate. Labelling can also increase the chances of bullying.

I hope that helps. If you want to know more about the syndrome and what you can do in the classroom to support students with tourettes, you might want to visit http://www.tourettesyndrome.net/education.htm

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Using pictures

Are you Angry or Not?

(pictures from www.learn2bebuddies.com.au)

Tommy asks Jenny if he can play with the truck she is using. She says, calmly and politely, “No. I am playing with it. There’s another one over there.”

Tommy begins to cry and comes rushing up to you. “Jenny won’t let me use the truck! She is being mean! Waaaaa!”

How do you explain that Jenny wasn’t being mean, or angry? She just wanted to play uninterrupted. There are other toys she wanted to share with you...


Using pictures to teach pragmatics (following on from the previous posts)

Tom needs to learn the difference between the facial expression and body language that makes the word “No” represent bullying or “meanness” as opposed to the pragmatics that reflect a reasonable refusal. This is a complex concept for all young children to learn.

For some children you may be able to talk to them and use words to help them understand this. But talking about it assumes several important things. Firstly, if you reason with Tom you are expecting that he is able to hear the words and understand what they mean. If he has a hearing impairment, developmental delay or a language disorder, this may be a difficulty for him.

Second, you are expecting that he can imagine and relate to the actions and emotions reflected in the words you are using. Again, children with developmental delays, Autism, Aspergers Syndrome and other social or behaviour difficulties may struggle with this process.

So what can we do?

One way to approach the issue is to use pictures. There are a number of benefits to using visuals (Bondy & Frost, 2002; MacKay, 2000; Marion, 2007).

1 - They can attract attention
For example, children with autism will find it hard to make eye-contact with others. It may be difficult for them to process sights, sounds and movement all at once. Making eye contact may mean they struggle to actually “hear” what the speaker is saying. Other children may have difficulties concentrating, paying attention or directing their gaze to something when asked.

When you use a picture, you can help a child focus on a representation of the facial expressions and body language without having to process movement and sound as well. The child can also be given the picture to hold, or it can be held in their eye-line.

2 - They are permanent
You can allow the child to study the picture for as long as needed. The expression won’t disappear in a moment as it would from another child’s face.

3 - They can be carried around
You can use the picture in a range of situations. You can get the child to use it to communicate their own emotions. Or you can point to the picture to communicate what another child may be feeling. By doing this you are helping the child generalise the information, or apply it to different situations and different people. This, in turn, will help them develop empathy.

4 - They are concrete
You don’t have to use language and imagination. The picture is a concrete representation of an abstract concept. You are providing them with the “image” for their imagination. This is especially important if the child thinks in pictures rather than in words.

5 - They can be adapted to any age
You can use photos, pictures or line drawings. You can adapt the pictures to any age and to any child’s interest.


So, in Tom’s case, you may use two pictures such as those seen below (free download from http://www.do2learn.com/).

You may get him to chose which one he thinks reflects Jenny’s response. Then you may get Jenny to choose the one that reflects what she really meant. Then you help correct the miscommunication in a very concrete way.

Don’t expect immediate results. You may have to use this process many times depending on the child’s difficulty. The first step may be just getting the child to look at the picture.

But with repetition, patience, praise and reinforcement (such as getting the truck after he has played with another toy for a short while), Tom will learn the difference between a calm and friendly, “No.” and an angry, mean “NO!”

References:

Bondy, A., Frost, L. (2002). A Picture’s Worth: PECS and Other Visual Communication Strategies in Autism. Woodbine House: USA

MacKay, G. (2000). Primary-age Pupils with Pragmatic Difficulties. In R. MacKay and C. Anderson (Eds), Teaching Children with Pragmatic Difficulties of Communication, pp55-71. David Fulton Publishes: London.

Marion, K. (2007). Visual Supports for People with Autism: A Guide for Parents and Professionals. The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 75(5) p281.

Line drawings retrieved from:

http://www.do2learn.com/picturecards/printcards/2inch/imagegridsnowords/emotionsnoword.htm

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Facial Expressions, Body Language and Empathy

Billy was building a road out of blocks.

“Hey, Billy! Can I play?” Tim said eagerly.
Billy smiled, “Sure, you can play!”
“What can I do?” Tim asked.
Billy pointed to the end of the road, giving Billy a toy car. “Just sit over there.”
“Okay!” Tim said as he sat in the indicated space and started running his car along the block road.

Billy was building a road out of blocks.
“Hey, Billy! Can I play?” Tim asked shyly.
“Sure you can play!” Billy replied sarcastically, looking at Tim with a sneer.
“What can I do?” Tim asked falteringly.
“Just sit over there.” Billy pointed to the very edge of the mat, out of reach of the road and any blocks.
“Okay.” Tim sat in the indicated spot and watched as Billy turned away to continue building the block road.

(Image copyright Daniel East 2008. Illustration is part of the children's book, Dave is Brave, written by Amanda Gray. Visit www.learn2bebuddies.com.au for more information.)

Body Language, Facial Expressions and Empathy

These two vignettes illustrate how the same words, used in different ways, can hold very different meaning. That’s because communication isn’t just about the words we use. It is about how we use them.

The same words can have a very different meaning depending on what facial expressions, tone of voice and body language we use. These things let others know what we really mean, or the intent of our words.

There are also many unspoken rules we need to follow when we are communicating to get our message across successfully. For example, we speak differently to a friend that we would to our boss. We also need to take turns, keep to the topic of conversation and use conventions like “I have to go now” to end our conversations.

These things all combine to give us the social context of language and are referred to as pragmatics (Scott Lue, 2001, MacKay, 2000). If a child has difficulty with pragmatics their success in interacting with others will be affected. Not only will they misunderstand others’ communication efforts, but they may struggle to get their message across without misunderstandings, hurt and frustration.

For example, as we speak to and interact with others we use their facial expressions and body language to help interpret how they are feeling or reacting to us. As we empathise we adapt our behaviour (McKay, 2000). So pragmatics helps us tell when someone is not interested in what we are saying, and we stop talking. Or it helps us realise if our actions or words are hurtful. It can also help us recognise jokes, sarcasm or bullying.

But not all children learn these skills in the same way.

Children who may struggle to learn pragmatics

To learn the pragmatics of language you need to be able to see, hear and concentrate. You need to be able to analyse, remember and adapt what you have learnt to new situations. You need literacy skills such as knowledge of words, grammar and how context changes a word’s meaning. And you need to be able to guess at other people’s attitudes and recognise someone else’s point of view (Anderson, 2000).

Children who have vision impairments can miss body language and facial expressions (Scott Lue, 2001). Taking turns in conversations may be hard as their ability to use eye-contact may be limited. They may need to develop other signals to help their friends know they are listening.

For children with hearing impairments, developmental delays and language disorders learning new words and concepts may be difficult. They may struggle with finding the right words to match their body language and gestures so they can get their message across (Anderson, 2000).

Children with attention deficit disorders may find it hard to keep eye-contact and pay attention when interacting. They may miss important facial expressions and body language, thus missing how their words and actions may be affecting another person (Sinzig, Morsch & Lehmkuhl, 2008).

Children with developmental delays, such as children with Down Syndrome, may struggle with the complex process of analysing, remembering and adapting what they have learnt in one situation to be used in new situations (Buckley, Bird & Sacks, 2002; NSW Council for Intellectual Disability, 2006). So they may find it hard to interpret body language and facial expressions they are not familiar with.

But the children we read about most often as struggling with pragmatics are children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) (Scott, Clark & Brady, 2000).

Autism Spectrum Disorders

Children with Autism may have difficulties learning to speak. Children with Aspergers Syndrome may have a big vocabulary and speak well, but struggle with the pragmatics of language. But in both cases, their key difficulties will include:

• making eye contact
• recognising and responding to facial expressions, tone of voice and body language
• taking turns and
• empathising (Scott, Clark & Brady, 2000).

For example, a child with autism spectrum disorders may keep bringing the conversation back to their area of interest even if it is not relevant to the conversation. They may not show interest in what the other person is saying. They may echo or imitate a question they have been asked rather than respond to it.

Teaching pragmatics

We usually develop our knowledge about the rules of communication and socialisation by observing, practising and applying past experiences to our interactions (Scott Lue, 2001; MacKay, 2000). We start learning these skills as a baby when we first make eye contact with our parents. But, as previously mentioned, children with a range of different difficulties will not learn these skills in the same way. For these children it is about explicit teaching.

We can do this in many different ways. I won’t discuss this now as I think I can sense from your body language that you may be losing interest :-). But in the coming weeks I will blog about how modelling, prompts, rewards, pictures and social stories can help children with a range of disabilities learn to recognise, interpret and develop body language, facial expressions and empathy.


References

Anderson, C. (2000). Pragmatic Communication Difficulties. In G. MacKay and C. Anderson (Eds), Teaching Children with Pragmatic Difficulties of Communication, pp24-38.

Buckley, SJ., Bird, G., and Sacks, B. (2002) Social Development of Individuals with Down Syndrome – An Overview. Retrieved 10th April 2009 from http://www.down-syndrome.org/information/social/overview/

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