Home, preschool, school, high school – what’s the difference?

I just thought I would start this month’s blog theme with a bit of a summary of the different skills that are required in the different contexts - home, preschool, school and high school. These changes can bring challenges for all children, but we need to take special care to prepare children who have disabilities for these changes as many may take a little longer to learn the skills necessary and take a little longer to adjust to the change - expecially if they have developmental delays, Autism and Down Syndrome or find it hard to learn some of the expected behavioural skills.

Just a note: Here I am focusing on the social and emotional factors, rather than academic skills such as numeracy and literacy.


The Physical environment

Home:
Children become safe in their environment as they become familiar with its layout and learn the boundaries. Parents also may have put in place structures such as closed doors, gates and so on to provide physical prompts to those boundaries.

Child Care and other pre-school environments:
The physical environment begins to grow. There will be more space, more people, and it will contain more and different equipment, lighting and noises.

School:
The world opens up even further, especially when we begin thinking about the playground. Here the physical boundaries (ie. what is "out of bounds") may not be as easily to identified.

High school:
Moving to high school generally means attending different classes in different rooms unless the child is placed in a specialist classroom. It will mean more movement during the school day into a range of different spaces that might have different noises, smells, people and sights associated with them. The child may need extra help in learning to navigate around the larger spaces and identifying physical boundaries.


Relating to Adults

Home:
At home your child will spend most of the day with you or with a small number of familiar adults. For the most part, they do not have to adjust to the different way adults relate to them, or the different ways adults might do things.

Families with children who have disabilities will also grow to know what routines help a child cope in their environment. This means that the environment is less changeable, more predictable – especially in the context of who the child has to interact with.

Child Care and other pre-school environments:
If your child goes to child care the first thing that will happen is that they will have to learn to trust and relate to a number of different adults. Secondly, there will be more children for the number of adults available, so they will have less one on one time with adults.

Children’s services Regulations 2004 state that the teacher to child ratios should be:
1:5 for children who are under the age of 2 years,
1:8 for children who are aged 2 to 3 years of age, and
1:10 for children who are 3 or more years of age but under 6 years of age.

While good centres do focus on consistency, there will be a range of different staff in one room each day. The staff may work shift work, and some of the staff may be part-time, casual or leave the centre during your child’s time there so further new faces may be introduced. So your child needs to be able to adjust to these changes, and interact with a range of adults who may have different expectations or routines, and relate to them in different ways.

School:
When your child goes to school, they will have one teacher in class, and a range of other teachers they will need to learn to trust and relate to on the playground. So, again, the change in the key adults in their lives will need to be considered. Further, there will be even less time that a teacher can spend with the child one to one.

According to the NSW Department of Education and Training class sizes on average so far in 2009 were:
- 19.3 for Kindergarten students;
- 21.3 for Year 1 students; and
- 22.6 for Year 2 students.

High school:
If your child is not placed in a specialist classroom, they will be taught by a range of different teachers. If your child is in a specialist classroom, they may integrate into regular classrooms for different subjects such as Personal Development, Health and Physical Education - being taught by different teachers in these classrooms.

As students move to middle school/high school, the relationship with their teachers changes. The are expected to be more independent. And because they spend much less time with individual teachers, they may form a closer, supportive relationship with only one or two of their teachers, their special education teacher, and/or their teacher’s aide.

Class sizes in high school vary depending on subjects and whether they are special education or general education, but there can be about 30 students in one classroom.


Adult-directed routines versus child-directed activities

Home:
At home you might have some set routines for meals, bathing and bed-time. You may also have some more irregular routines such as grocery shopping. But for much of the time at home there is freedom for a child to choose their own activities according to their interest.

Child Care and other pre-school environments:
The routines begin to increase. One of the times children struggle to adjust to the most is mat time, or the time where all children are expected to sit quietly and listen to a story or sing songs. This is often the first time children have experienced this type of group, adult-directed activity.

School:
While Kindergarten or prep classes often have set free-play times, the day is full of routines. It usually starts with assembly – and lining up and being orderly with the rest of the school brings unique challenges for all children new to the situation, but especially for children who have sensory sensitivities, problems staying still, difficulties following instructions and so on.

Then the day alternates between in-class, teacher-established routines, and the relative freedom and “orderly chaos” of the playground. And all these routines are determined by the clock, rather than by the preference of the child. This makes it a big change, especially if the child is coming to school having not experienced a pre-school environment.

High school:
There are added transitions and routines in high school due to the movement from class to class. And students are expected follow the routines more independently. For example, as they move through the high school years they are increasingly expected to follow timetables and get themselves to their allotted classroom at the appropriate time.


Social interaction and rules:

Home:
Social skills and expectations that might be important in the home might include politeness, sharing with siblings and following parent instructions.

Child Care and other pre-school environments:
In these settings, children will need to use further skills that relate to communal living. For example:
- sharing and taking turns with toys and equipment
- Sitting quietly on the mat during group time, waiting for their turn to talk
- Communicating using the conventions of language, rather than eccentric language or gestures used at home

From age three children are usually starting to form friendship groups as well, which requires another set of skills including empathy as children are expected to become less egocentric.

School:
Children are expected to become increasingly self-regulating. Some skills that they will need to learn include:
- sitting quietly and working at their desks
- sitting quietly on the mat to listen to a story
- putting their hand up to speak
- lining up and waiting
- staying in the class during lesson times
- participating in activities they are not necessarily interested in
- asking to go to the toilet

Friendship skills will also be important to help them participate more effectively in the playground.

High school:
The thing that is expected more in high school than in primary school is independence and what we might call maturity. That is, the ability to judge for themselves what might be appropriate behaviour based on where they are, who they are with and their knowledge of the social rules and consequences for their actions.

So, in short, home means fewer people, a smaller physical environment, more freedom and perhaps less social demands. School can be a tiring place as children need to practice self-control, follow routines and relate to more people - both adults and children.

Throughout this month I will try to discuss ways that you can help your child prepare for the next stage in their schooling career.

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Ask Amanda - PECS system

Hi Amanda - I thought I'd get in early with a question for you - I am exploring the idea of adapting a PECS system to help Hannah cope in an inclusive classroom. Can you suggest some ways to introduce her to this, also how would it work in a classroom? ( Is it really that easy for a teacher to and child to use? it is the one I am considering because my experience is that teachers rarely ahve the time to learn signing and then use it consistently) Also - what should I include in it eg are there categories that are commonly going to be useful in kindy? Anecdotally I have heard parents say that using this system has helped their children increase utterance length due to the sentence strip. I have access to the 2008 pecs cd - if I find it is working I will probably consider buying an updated version - next year. Thanks a lot. Shelley of Mainstream Musings(using Kit's private blog address cos I am not very technologically able - sorry!

What is PECS?

First, for those who aren’t familiar with the term PECS, it stands for Picture Exchange Communication System. The most common picture system used in schools is Boardmaker, with more and more schools actually purchasing the CD for use in their inclusive classrooms. See Spectronics for more information.

However, for families this system is not always affordable. There are other picture systems that have been developed, but if you want some free downloads you can visit Visual aids for learning, Sparklebox and do2learn. Both of these sites have free, downloadable pictures of commonly used concepts at home and at school.

How are PECS used?

The idea behind PECS is that by using concrete objects (pictures), the child can communicate without having skills such as eye contact and shared attention (paying attention to the same thing as the person they are communicating with, and taking turns in conversation) (Charlop-Christy, Carpenter, Lee, LeBlanc, & Kellet, 2002). These abstract skills can be taught in a very concrete, hands-on way using the pictures.

For example, if you are finding it difficult to get your child to pay attention to what your are saying, giving them a picture can help focus their attention. If the child is trying to communicate something, but is struggling to engage in the give-and-take of conversation, exchanging pictures can be like using a “talking stick”. In this way, they are getting your attention, and you are able to respond to their needs.

Pictures can be used instead of speech, but are usually used to supplement speech. PECS has been shown to be effective in helping children develop increased vocabulary and functional communication (Charlop-Christy et al., 2002). That is, children develop the ability to communicate their needs, wants and feelings in a way that helps them participate throughout the day with fewer “meltdowns” due to the frustration of not being able to communicate.

PECS is used for children with a wide variety of difficulties, including children with Down Syndrome and Autism.

How do you teach young children to use PECS?

Applied behaviour analysis and incidental teaching are usually used to teach PECS (Wolery, 2000). Here are some ideas:

a) Put things out of reach so that the child has to request the object:
Make sure you have the picture card readily available. Do this as a game, and be prepared with extrinsic rewards such as stickers if necessary so that it does not become distressing for both the child and yourself. But the aim is to arrive at a place where getting what they want or need, and a hug or a smile is enough to make the activity rewarding for your child.

For example, if you want to teach your child to request to use the toilet (an important skill for school participation), first shut the toilet door. Assuming your child can’t open the door for themselves, that is. Then, blu-tack the picture representing the toilet to the door, making sure it is within easy reach of your child. Praise your child and immediately open the door when they point to, touch or pull the picture off the door and give it to you.

(picture from do2learn)

b) Modelling
Continuing with the above example, have everyone in the house use the same technique. When you want to go to the toilet, give your child the picture of the toilet before you open the door. This means that she will learn to apply the “word” to others, not just herself. And whenever you use the card, say the phrase, “I need to go to the toilet.”

c) Repetition
Don’t vary this routine, right down to what you say. Get her to try to say exactly the same thing every time she uses the picture as well. If you repeat the same phrase, it will become familiar. Your child will also be able to practice and develop an “imprint” of that phrase in their memory – this it will help the shaping of the sounds with their mouth, their hearing of the sounds and their understanding.

d) Prompt and wait
You may also need to have a phrase and a gesture that will help prompt her to use the picture and/or language. Again, this phrase should remain the same … and pass this on to the teacher of her inclusive classroom. Make it something simple, like pointing to the picture and saying, “What do you say?” Then give your child a minute or so to process what you have said, and have a go. If she is getting distracted, use the same gesture and phrase again. Repetition and familiarity with the prompt are important, though at first you may need to use more physical prompts like guiding her hand to touch the picture. But gradually, try and reduce the prompts you give.

How is it used in the classroom?

PECS, especially boardmaker, is used in a number of ways in schools.

Individual communication booklets:
This is where the child carries around a little booklet of key pictures in their pocket, or on a key ring clipped to their waistband. Here is an example from http://www.autismshopper.com/page8.html.

At school the communication booklet usually has pictures of key people, such as their teacher; self-help words, such as “toilet” and “hungry”; and emotions, such as happy or sad. They may also have pictures that represent key timetable features such as lunch, class and playground time.

Timetables and transitions:
Becoming more common are velcro timetables. This is where pictures representing the different activities of the school day are stuck to a strip of velcroe either to the board at the front of the room, or to the child’s desk. Each time a task is finished, the picture is taken of the strip. Therefore the child can keep track of what is going on. This benefits all children in the classroom.

PECS can also be used to break up and teach the steps in specific activities. See an example on the Spectronics website.

Rules:
The differing social demands of school can be quite challenging for the child. Therefore, PECS are often used to communicate the teacher’s expectations. For example, when sitting on the floor in front of the teacher the expectation is to sit quietly and keep your hands to your self. The teacher may stick the appropriate picture reflecting this on the board. They may also give a smaller version of the picture to the child to gain the child’s attention, then give a verbal prompt (shhh) and gesture (finger to lips). This really helps with the transitions and interactions that are an essential part of the school day. See and example here.

Social stories:
The example in the link above is also a demonstration of how PECS can be used also to develop social stories which will teach children skills to cope with the different social challenges of the school day. I discussed this in a previous post.

In sum, the most commonly used categories at school are:

Self-care, including words such as toilet, food, drink, hurt

Timetabling and transitions: desk work, circle time, craft, sport and so on.

Social skills, including greetings, key emotions (happy, sad), rules (sharing, sitting still and quiet, putting hand up)

PECS may also be used during literacy activities to develop story strips, as seen on the right. These are Boardmaker symbols.

Just a note about sign language: Makaton

Makaton sign language (they have a PECS too) is becoming more common within inclusive classrooms as it is based on natural gestures rather than finger spelling. For example, the natural good-bye wave is used for “good-bye”. The “T” that we use in a “time-out” gesture for basketball is used to signify the need for a toilet break.

Check with your school – you might find that these simple gestures can be used for some key phrases. They can be taught in the same ways as your would teach PECS.

Find out about the difference between Makaton and AUSLAN here.

References:

Charlop-Christy, M.H., Carpenter, M., Lee, L, LeBlanc, L.A. & Kellet, K. (2002). Using the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) with children with autism: Assessment of PECS acquisition, speech, social-communicative behaviour and problem behaviour. Journal of applied behaviour analysis, 35(3), pp213-231.

Wolery, M. (2000). Behavioural and educational approaches to early intervention. In J.P. Shonkoff & S.J. Meisels (Eds) Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd Ed), pp179-203. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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No such thing as evil

“There is no such thing as evil. Youth behaviour that challenges the common expectations and values of society is not the result of inherent wickedness, but is a multifaceted problem emerging from a complex network of factors.” (Leaman 2005 p1)

I don’t think there is anything I want to add to that… I just thought it was a great, thought-provoking statement. It draws attention to what is not always in the forefront of our minds when we are dealing with the most difficult behaviour: that behaviour is very complex and there are many factors both seen and unseen that influence that behaviour.

But, like Leaman, I also want to make that point that this is not excusing behaviour. Rather, it is an attempt to understand it so we can effectively change it.

Leaman also talks about three hidden contributors to aggressive or other disruptive or difficult behaviours.

Low self-esteem

There are many reasons for low self-esteem, but one that children with differing abilities may face more frequently than others is failure. Failure in the classroom. Failure in social relationships. Failure in achieving their potential in other areas.

A child who experiences what they see as failure can be at risk of spiralling into disempowerment and/or depression. For some children this can be seen in bullying behaviour as the child tries to empower themselves. For others it can be seen in both passive and active defiance, or refusals to complete tasks.

For example, it is recognised that children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiance Disorder often have low self-esteem (Better health Channel, 2007). Their refusals to obey rules, swearing, blaming or needling others can be linked to (though they are not exclusively a product of) low self-esteem and the need for power and control. Refusals to obey rules and swearing or bullying others swing the balance of power back in their favour. Blaming others for their mistakes or errors, or simply refusing to attempt tasks, can be a protection mechanism to avoid being seen as weak or having failed in a task. By doing these things they are controlling their environment through intimidation or defiance.

Egocentricity

Acting impulsively or acting without first considering the effect of their actions on others can also be a contributor to aggressive behaviour. For more on this see the previous posts on executive function and the development of empathy.

Internalised anger

Children with Down Syndrome can also be seen as stubborn or defiant. However, the issue is more that, due to their intellectual disability/developmental delay, it is more likely that they do not understand what is required of them (Feeley & Jones, 2006). The difficulty is that they may find it very hard to put into words as their developmental delay and physical difficulties can influence their ability to communicate complex, abstract concepts like emotions. This may be exacerbated by low self-esteem from experiences of “failure”, and thus increase the risk of the child acting aggressively or defiantly in order to express their feelings or protect themselves from embarrassment.

It is important, in this case, to recognise that children with Down Syndrome have been shown to be at increased risk of depression and other anxiety disorders (Pollack, 2009). So responding to the needs of the child rather than focusing on the behaviour is important.


Leaman has some great suggestions of strategies to deal with difficult and aggressive behaviour. If you can get your hands on this book, whether you are a teacher or a parent dealing with challenging behaviour, I am sure you will find it very helpful.


References:

Better Health Channel/Victorian Government. (2007). Oppositional Defiance Disorder. Retrieved 26th August 2009 from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Oppositional_defiant_disorder

Feeley, K. and Jones, E. (2006). Strategies to Address Challenging Behaviour in Young Children with Down Syndrome. Retrieved 26th August 2009 from http://www.down-syndrome.org/case-studies/2008/

Leaman, L. (2005) Managing Very Challenging Behaviour. London: Continuum

Pollack, S.D. (2009) Waisman Center. Retrieved 26th August 2009 from http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/faculty/pollak.html

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Violence in the Media and aggression…

Over many years, there has been a debate raging around this issue. I don’t want to enter into that debate here, but I do want to talk about the things we need to consider when we are making decisions about what our children watch or what video games they play.

How might aggressive behaviour develop?

There are a number of theories about the development and occurrence of aggression across different stages of child and youth development. Kirsch (2006) provides a good overview if you want to read more. However, here I just want to quickly summarise these.

Some children may be more wired towards aggression
This has to do with personality characteristics and the outcomes of disorders such as Autism, Attention Deficit Disorders and Developmental Delays. These children aren’t necessarily going to act aggressively, but due to impulsivity, difficulties with problem-solving or other aspects of cognition they are at higher risk of developing aggressive behaviour depending on what they see, hear and experience.

We learn many social skills by observing
What we see and hear has a great influence on how we behave. It influences our sense of what is “normal” and acceptable. So if we are constantly seeing others act aggressively, whether in real life or in the media, we are more likely to accept this behaviour as “normal”. We may even start behaving more aggressively. This has been described as de-sensitisation.

The other effect is that we can develop a different definition of what constitutes aggression or unacceptable behaviour. This may lead to us not responding in the same way to aggressive behaviour in others. So if I am exposed to swearing and the yelling of derogatory comments regularly, I am less likely to feel that I am being treated unfairly or being bullied when someone yells and swears at me. And while it does not necessarily follow that this behaviour does not affect me emotionally, it can mean I don’t defend myself or communicate to the other person that this behaviour is unacceptable.

Our experiences reinforce what we see
What we experience in our lives, and what those who we trust and love do around us, can influence whether we take on what we see. For example, Kirsh discusses research that suggests that the effects of what children see in the media can be increased or decreased through discussions with teachers and parents. For example, what children learn from educational shows or documentaries is increased if teachers or parents explicitly discuss the content of the shows with them. On the flip side, the effects of a scary movie can be reduced by the presence of an adult if that adult makes the child feel safe. And violence in the movie can be put into perspective through discussion of social values and/or the difference between real life and what they have seen.

Aggression may not be evident immediately
In some cases, the influence of violent media can be evident immediately. For example, when I was working in a child care centre there was definitely an increase in children playfully or intentionally hurting each other with “karate” moves during the “Ninja Turtle” craze. For the most part this behaviour could be shaped and changed through discussions and behaviour modification techniques, but for some children it became a significant bar to their relationships with their peers.

However, it is the more long term effects that we can’t predict and are less likely to be able to manage. For example, the American Psychological Association (2003) reports on a 15 year study of 329 people which showed that children who watch a lot of violent media early in life are at greater risk of becoming physical in domestic arguments, or having been convicted of crimes.

There is also the concern that children who have a tendency towards aggression may enjoy watching it, which in turn could lead to a warped view of what is acceptable and what is not.

Triggers for aggression
So if a child comes to think of aggression as being part of life and an acceptable way of dealing with problems, they are more likely to have a physical response to social problems such as arguments, debates, insults, frustration and anger. It is the latter emotions that bring about aggressive behaviour.

What we need to consider for children of differing abilities

Taking things literally
We need to be especially thoughtful about what our children watch if they tend to take things literally. For example, children with intellectual disabilities may find it very difficult to understand that there can be a dual set of values – one for “real” relationships, and one for the shows they watch. They may take statements or modelled behaviour in the media literally. So watching on thing, then hearing another from their parents or teachers, can be a very confusing experience.

Children who have Autism and Aspergers may also struggle with this as they also tend to have a very literal, black and white view on the world.

Difficulties with self-management
Children who have difficulty thinking about consequences or the effects of their actions on themselves or their peers before they act can also be at greater risk of being influenced by repeated exposure to aggression in the media. For example, children with ADHD often act impulsively in response to their feelings due to the difficulty with executive function (see previous post). So they need extra support to get into the habit of controlling their behaviour. Repeated viewing of uncontrolled or inappropriate behaviour could mean that this behaviour becomes habitually seen as acceptable.

Ongoing frustrations and feelings of failure
Children with a wide range of difficulties, including physical and sensory disabilities such as cerebral palsy and vision or hearing impairments, experience many frustrations and challenges throughout the day. They may find themselves tired or unable to effectively communicate what they know, want or need to others. The way they respond to these feelings is not only shaped by their natural, impulsive response. It is shaped by what methods they have learnt to deal with this situation. So, again, if they are seeing inappropriate models in the media, it may influence their behaviour.


Conclusion

So while the media can’t necessarily be blamed for aggressive behaviour, it can be a contributing factor. And for children with differing abilities, we need to make sure that all our hard work teaching positive social skills isn’t being weakened by repeated exposure to media that communicates contradictory values and inappropriate approaches to problem-solving.

So when you are deciding on media use in your family or classroom, consider the content in the context of the values and skills you want your children to learn. Also consider how much/how often they view movies, videos, TV shows and play computer games. And, finally, consider whether they do it unsupervised and how much you talk to them about the content they have seen. Because, in the end, the values and social skills you model and communicate to your child will be a significant factor in helping them process the information in a balanced way.


References:
Kirsh, S.J. (2006). Children, Adolescents, and Media Violence: A Critical Look at the Research. London: Sage Publications.

American Psychological Association. (2003). Childhood Exposure to Media Violence Predicts Young Adult Aggressive Behaviour, According to a New 15-Year Study: Children Who Identify with Aggressive TV Characters and Perceive the Violence to be Realistic are Most at Risk for Later Aggression. Retrieved 16h August from: http://www.apa.org/releases/media_violence.html

American Psychological Association. (2004). Psychologists Help Protect Children from Harmful Effects: Decades of psychological research confirms that media violence can increase aggression. Retrieved 16h August from: http://www.psychologymatters.org/mediaviolence.html

Want to read more:
http://spil.medieraadet.dk/upload/04a_melb.pdf This is the best article. I recommend reading this.
http://ultimateparenting.com/pdf/violence_in_the_media.pdf
http://www.commonsensemedia.org/impact-media-violence-tips
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/effects_media_violence.cfm
http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/index.htm
http://www.psychologymatters.org/videogames.html
http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2005-2009/07BA.pdf

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Ask Amanda: The role of teacher's aides

Question from Shelley:
What does research generally say about aides and aide time - I am wondering for example how effective an hour's aid time a day might be as opposed to 1.5 days with an aid there all the time.

Comment by Sue:
Hi Amanda,
Just following up on what Shelly is asking about I have been really concerned about a growing trend which seems to be happening in schools at the moment. That being, that teacher aides are more often teaching students with special needs than their teachers are. Also that much of the planning seems to be left up to teacher aides too. Over the years I have seen many kids who come to a special education setting after completing their primary schooling who are seriously aide and prompt dependent. It is an even greater problem is schools where a student may have had the same ( well intentioned) teacher aide for the whole of their primary schooling.


The use of teachers aides is increasing. But we need to be clear on the role of a teacher's aide before we can effectively use them in the classroom.

Most importantly, it is important to know that a teachers aide or assistant is not a trained teacher. Here are some sites that tell you about the qualifications of teachers aides in Australia:
http://www.jobguide.thegoodguides.com.au/occupation/view/631115A/NSW
http://www.getaccess.wa.gov.au/careers/profiles/data/OCC291.asp?print=Y

I found the Middlesborough Teaching Assistants site really interesting. The statement that is important is that the role of the teachers aide is to "enable access to the curriculum and to facilitate independent learning, and to promote inclusion."

It is really important to see teachers aides as facilitators rather than "scaffolds" or "supports".

This video also has some great stuff: http://www.teachers.tv/video/1522

The Disability Standards for Education 2005 Part 3 highlight that all adjustments made to support students' learning must ensure that the child can learn as independently as possible.

The consistent presence of a teachers aide is possibly not as important as how the teachers aide is used, and what adjustments are being made in terms of teaching strategies, materials and grouping in the classroom.

As Sue mentioned, using a teachers aide in a way that will promote co-dependence or dependence in the student does not meet the aim of promoting independence. For example, I have seen situations where a student is placed at the back of the classroom with an aide to complete tasks that they could not complete without assistance, or tasks that are not connected to what is going on in the classroom. In these cases you often find the students have a low sense of self-efficacy. That is, if the teacher's aide is away the child refuses to complete work, or withdraws, or is constantly asking for the classroom teacher's assistance.

The aim should be that we make adjustments to the way we present information and work with the students. For example, we use more visuals and hands-on materials. We have glossaries and checklists. We arrange the physical environment with consideration for the child's needs. The aim is to ensure that the child can participate as independently as possible.

Then the best way to use a teacher's aide will be scheduling them on at times when extra supervision or extra one-one support may be needed for safety or equity reasons. For example, if the child struggles with literacy, then the teachers aide could be present at literacy lessons to work with small groups or pairs of students. Or they could be there, roaming the room, helping to answer questions so that the student can get adequate support without sacrificing teacher time for the other students.

The same philosophy could apply to situations where the student may have behaviour or physical difficulties. Example - a child with physical difficulties may be allocated a teachers aide during physical education. Or a child who is prone to "melt-downs" in noisy or less structured lessons is allocated teachers aide time so that they can help maintain duty of care even if the child has to leave the room for a "break".

We also need to ensure that the use of a teachers aide does not increase the risk of bullying.... see the previous post on this topic.

Perhaps we should see teachers aides as facilitators, an extra pair of hands in situations where duty of care or support for other children may be significantly affected by the needs of the child with a disability.

So to answer your question...

Research about resilience, high expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies suggest that:

- Making adjustments to resources and teaching strategies to promote independent learning are essential, whether a child has a teacher's aide or not.

- The way a teacher's aide is used is likely to be more important than how much time they spend with the child. The exception may be if the child really struggles to relate to "strangers" and needs routine. Then it will be important to allow time for the child to get used to the teachers aide being part of the classroom, unless they can be taught that the teachers aide is part of a particular activity (eg PE means the teachers aide will be there)


If we expect children to be independent, provided we have appropriate supports, materials and teaching strategies, then they are more likely to be resilience and confident learners.

One on one support is beneficial for many children with disabilities, but it can also be provided through peer-assisted learning. One on one support, however, is not necessarily essential for learning success.

The line between expecting too much and expecting too little is not always an easy one to find, but it is important that we recognise that children with disabilities are capable of learning independently.

The short answer??

1 hour a day can be just as effective as 1.5 days with an aide if the aide is used at a time when the child may need to ask more questions, or needs further supervision due to social, behaviour or emotional difficulties.

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